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Fetal development

In the seventh and eighth weeks of development, the head becomes more erect, and the previously curved trunk becomes straighter. The heart and liver, which earlier dominated the shape of the ventral body, yield to a more evenly rounded chest-abdomen region. The tail, which at an earlier time was one-fifth of the embryo’s length, becomes inconspicuous both through actual regression and through concealment by the growing buttocks. The face rapidly acquires a fairly human appearance; eyes, ears, and jaws are prominent. The eyes, previously located on the sides of the head, become directed forward. The nose lacks a bridge and so is of the “pug” type, with the nostrils directed forward instead of downward. A mandibular branch of each Y-shaped branchial arch combines with its mate to form the lower jaw. The maxillary branch on each side joins an elevation on the medial (inner) side of the corresponding nostril to produce the more-complicated upper jaw. Branchial arches, other than those forming the jaws and external ears, are effaced through incorporation into an emerging recognizable neck. Limbs become jointed, and the earlier hand plates and foot plates differentiate terminal digits. Primitive external genitalia appear, but in a nondistinctive, sexless condition.

Almost all of the internal organs are well laid down at the end of eight weeks, when the embryo is little more than 25 mm (1 inch) long. The characteristic external features are established, and subsequent growth merely modifies existing proportions without adding new structure. Similarly, the chief changes undergone by internal organs and parts are those of growth and tissue specialization. At eight weeks the neuromuscular mechanism attains a degree of perfection that permits some response to delicate stimulation.

During the third month the young fetus clearly resembles a human being, although the head is disproportionately large. The previous protrusion of much of the intestine into the umbilical cord is reduced through the return of its loops into the abdomen. The ears rise to eye level and the eyelids fuse shut. Nails begin forming; ossification (bone-forming) centres appear in most of the future bones; and the sex of external genitalia becomes recognizable. (In this paragraph, and in the next two, the months are lunar months, of 28 days.)

At four months individual differences between the faces of fetuses become distinguishable. The face is broad but the eyes are now less widely separated. The umbilical cord attaches higher on the abdominal wall; this location is above an expanding region between the cord and the pubis (front bones of the pelvis) that scarcely existed previously.

At five months downy hairs (lanugo) cover the body, and some head hairs appear. The skin is less transparent. Fetal movements (“quickening”) are felt by the mother. At six months eyebrows and eyelashes are clearly present. The body is lean, but its proportions have improved. The skin is wrinkled. Its reddish, wrinkled skin is smeared with a greasy substance (vernix caseosa). The eyelids reopen. At eight months fat is depositing beneath the skin. The testes begin to invade the scrotum. At nine months the dull redness of the skin fades and wrinkles smooth out. The body and limbs become better-rounded.

At full term (38 weeks) the body is plump and proportions are improved, although the head is large and the lower limbs are still slightly shorter than the upper limbs. The skin has lost its coat of lanugo hair, but it is still smeared with vernix caseosa. Nails project beyond the finger tips and to the tips of the toes. The umbilical cord now attaches to the centre of the abdomen. The testes of males are usually in the scrotum; the greater lips of the female external genitalia, which previously gaped, are now in contact. Cranial bones meet except at some angular junctions, or “soft spots.”

The average time of delivery is 280 days from the beginning of the last menstrual period, whereas the duration of pregnancy (age of the baby) is about 266 days (38 weeks). Pregnancy may extend to 300 days or even more, in which case the baby tends to be heavier. Premature babies born under 27 weeks of age are less likely to survive, even when treated in a neonatal unit, whereas those more than 30 weeks old usually do survive.

The average size and weight of the baby from two to nine months during prenatal development are shown in the table.

Development of organs

Ectodermal derivatives

Integumentary system

The skin has a double origin. Its superficial layer, or epidermis, develops from ectoderm. The initial single-layered sheet of epithelial cells becomes multilayered by proliferation, and cells nearer the surface differentiate into a horny substance. Pigment granules appear in the basal layer. The epidermis of the palm and sole becomes thicker and more specialized than elsewhere. Cast-off superficial cells and downy hairs mingle with a greasy glandular secretion and smear the skin in the late fetal months; the pasty mass is called vernix caseosa. The deep layer of the skin, or dermis, is a fibrous anchoring bed differentiated from mesoderm. In the later fetal months the plane of union between epidermis and dermis becomes wavy. The permanently ridged patterns are notable at the surface of the palm and sole.

Nails develop in pocketlike folds of the skin near the tips of digits. During the fifth month specialized horny material differentiates into proliferating ectodermal cells. The resulting nail plate is pushed forward as new plate substance is added in the fold. Fingernails reach the fingertips one month before birth. Hairs, produced only by mammals, begin forming in the third month as cylindrical buds that grow downward from the epidermis into the dermis. Cells at the base of the hair bud proliferate and produce a horny, pigmented thread that moves progressively upward in the axis of the original cylinder. This first crop of hairs is a downy coat named lanugo. It is prominent by the fifth month but is mostly cast off before birth. Unlike nails, hairs are shed and replaced periodically throughout life.

Sebaceous glands develop into tiny bags, each growing out from the epithelial sheath that surrounds a hair. Their cells proliferate, disintegrate, and release an oily secretion. Sweat glands at first resemble hair pegs, but the deep end of each soon coils. In the seventh month an axial cavity appears and later is continued through the epidermis. The mammary glands, unique to mammals, are specialized sweat glands. In the sixth week a thickened band of ectoderm extends between the bases of the upper and lower limb buds. In the pectoral (chest) region only, gland buds grow rootlike into the primitive connective tissue beneath. During the fifth month 15 to 20 solid cords foretell the future ducts of each gland. Until late childhood the mammary glands are identical in both sexes.

Mouth and anus

The mouth is a derivative of the stomodaeum, an external pit bounded by the overjutting primitive nasal region and the early upper and lower jaw projections. Its floor is a thin membrane where ectoderm and endoderm fuse (oropharyngeal membrane). Midway in the fourth week this membrane ruptures, making continuous the primitive ectodermal mouth and endodermal pharynx (throat). Lips and cheeks arise when ectodermal bands grow into the mesoderm and then split into two sheets. Teeth have a compound origin: the cap of enamel develops from ectoderm, whereas the main mass of the tooth, the dentin, and the encrusting cementum about the root differentiate from mesoderm. The salivary glands arise as ectodermal buds that branch, bushlike, into the deeper mesoderm. Berrylike endings become the secretory acini (small sacs), while the rest of the canalized system serves as ducts. The palate is described in relation to the nasal passages. A tiny pocket detaches from the ectodermal roof of the stomodaeum and becomes the anterior, or frontward, lobe of the hypophysis, also called the pituitary gland. The anterior lobe fuses with the neural lobe of the gland.

A double-layered oval membrane separates the endodermal hindgut from an ectodermal pit, called the proctodaeum, the site of the future anal canal and its orifice, the anus. Rupture at eight weeks creates a communication between the definitive anus and the rectum.

Central nervous system

Both the brain and the spinal cord arise from an elongated thickening of the ectoderm that occupies the midline region of the embryonic disk. The sides of this neural plate elevate as neural folds, which then bound a gutterlike neural groove. Further growth causes the folds to meet and fuse, thereby creating a neural tube. The many-layered wall of this tube differentiates into three concentric zones, first indicated in embryos of five weeks. The innermost zone, bordering the central canal, becomes a layer composed of long cells called ependymal cells, which are supportive in function. The middle zone becomes the gray substance, a layer characterized by nerve cells. The outermost zone becomes the white substance, a layer packed with nerve fibres. The neural tube is also demarcated internally by a pair of longitudinal grooves into dorsal and ventral halves. The dorsal half is a region associated with sensory functioning and the ventral half with motor functioning.

The gray substance contains primitive stem cells, many of which differentiate into neuroblasts. Each neuroblast becomes a neuron, or a mature nerve cell, with numerous short branching processes, the dendrites, and with a single long process, the axon. The white substance lacks neuroblasts but contains closely packed axons, many with fatty sheaths that produce the whitish appearance. The primitive stem cells of the neural tube also give rise to nonnervous cells called neuroglia cells.

Brain

The head end of the neural plate becomes expansive even as it closes into a tube. This brain region continues to surpass the spinal cord region in size. Three enlargements are prominent: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain gives rise to two secondary expansions, the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The midbrain, which remains single, is called the mesencephalon. The hindbrain produces two secondary expansions called the metencephalon and the myelencephalon.

The telencephalon outpouches, right and left, into paired cerebral hemispheres, which overgrow and conceal much of the remainder of the brain before birth. Late in fetal life the surface of the cerebrum becomes covered with folds separated by deep grooves. The superficial gray cortex is acquired by the migration of immature nerve cells, or neuroblasts, from their primary intermediate position in the neural wall. The diencephalon is preponderantly gray substance, but its roof buds off the pineal gland, which is not nervous tissue, and its floor sprouts the stalk and neural (posterior) lobe of the pituitary. The mesencephalon largely retains its early tubular shape. App to download videos from tumblr. The metencephalon develops dorsally into the imposing cerebellum, with hemispheres that secondarily gain convolutions clothed with a gray cortex. The myelencephalon is transitional into the simpler spinal cord. Roof regions of the telencephalon, diencephalon, and myelencephalon differentiate the vascular choroid plexuses—including portions of the pia mater, or innermost brain covering, that project into the ventricles, or cavities, of the brain. The choroid plexuses secrete cerebrospinal fluid.

Spinal cord

For a time, the spinal cord portion of the neural tube tapers gradually to an ending at the tip of the spine. In the fourth month it thickens at levels where nerve plexuses, or networks, supply the upper and lower limbs; these are called the cervical and lumbosacral enlargements. At this time the spine begins to elongate faster than the spinal cord. As a result, the caudal (hind) end of the anchored cord becomes progressively stretched into a slender, nonnervous strand known as the terminal filament. Midway in the seventh month the functional spinal cord ends at a level corresponding to the midpoint of the kidneys. Both the brain and the spinal cord are covered with a fibrous covering, the dura mater, and a vascular membrane, the pia-arachnoid. These coverings differentiate from local, neighbouring mesoderm.

Peripheral nervous system

In general, each craniospinal nerve has a dorsal (posterior) root that bears a ganglion (mass of nerve tissue) containing sensory nerve cells and their fibres and a ventral (anterior) root that contains motor nerve fibres but no nerve cells. Ganglion cells differentiate from cells of the neural crest, which is at first a cellular band pinched off from the region where each neural fold continues into ordinary ectoderm. Each of these paired bands breaks up into a series of lumps, spaced in agreement with the segmentally arranged mesodermal somites. Neuroblasts within these primordial ganglia develop a single stem and hence are called unipolar. From this common stem, one nerve process, or projection, grows back into the adjacent sensory half of the neural tube. Another projection grows in the opposite direction, helping to complete the dorsal root of a nerve. Neuroblasts of motor neurons arise in the ventral half of the gray substance of the neural tube. They sprout numerous short, freely branching projections, the dendrites, and one long, little-branching projection, the axon. Such a neuron is called multipolar. These motor fibres grow out of the neural tube and constitute a ventral root. As early as the fifth week they are joined by sensory fibres of the dorsal root and continue as a nerve trunk.

Cells of the neural crest differentiate into cells other than sensory neurons. Among these variants are cells that encapsulate ganglion cells and others that become neurolemma cells, which follow the peripherally growing nerve fibres and ensheath them. The neurolemma cells cover some nerve fibres with a fatty substance called myelin.

Spinal nerves

Spinal nerves are sensorimotor nerves with dorsal and ventral roots. A network called a brachial plexus arises in relation to each upper limb and a lumbosacral plexus in relation to each lower limb. The spine, elongating faster than the spinal cord, drags nerve roots downward, since each nerve must continue to emerge between the same two vertebrae. Because of their appearance, the obliquely coursing nerve roots are named the cauda equina, the Latin term for horse’s tail.

Cranial nerves

Cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X arise in relation to embryonic branchial arches but have origins similar to the spinal nerves. The olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I) are unique in that their cell bodies lie in the olfactory epithelium (the surface membrane lining the upper parts of the nasal passages), each sending a nerve fibre back to the brain. The so-called optic nerves (II) are not true nerves but only tracts that connect the retina (a dislocated portion of the brain) with the brain proper. Nerves III, IV, VI, and XII are pure motor nerves that correspond to the ventral roots of spinal nerves. The acoustic nerves (VIII) are pure sensory nerves, each with a ganglion that subdivides for auditory functions and functions having to do with equilibrium and posture; they correspond to dorsal roots. Nerves X and XI are a composite of which XI is a motor component.

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is made up of two divisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. It controls involuntary actions, such as the constriction of blood vessels. Some cells of the neural crests migrate and form paired segmental masses alongside the aorta, a principal blood vessel. Part of the cells become efferent multipolar ganglion cells (cells whose fibres carry impulses outward from ganglions, or aggregates of nerve cells), and others merely encapsulate the ganglion cells. These autonomic ganglia link into longitudinal sympathetic trunks. Some of the neuroblasts migrate farther and assemble as collateral ganglia—ganglia not linked into longitudinal trunks. Still others migrate near, or within, the visceral organs that they will innervate and produce terminal ganglia. These ganglia are characteristic of the parasympathetic system.

Some cells of certain primitive collateral ganglia leave and invade the amassing mesodermal cortex of each adrenal gland. Consolidating in the centre, they become the endocrine cells of the medulla.

Sense organs

Olfactory organ

Paired thickenings of ectoderm near the tip of the head infold and produce olfactory pits. These expand into sacs in which only a relatively small area becomes olfactory in function. Some epithelial cells in these regions remain as inert supporting elements. Others become spindle-shaped olfactory cells. One end of each olfactory cell projects receptive olfactory hairs beyond the free surface of the epithelium. From the other end a nerve fibre grows back and makes a connection within the brain.

Gustatory organ

Most taste buds arise on the tongue. Each bud, a barrel-shaped specialization within the epithelium that clothes certain lingual papillae (small projections on the tongue), is a cluster of tall cells, some of which have differentiated into taste cells whose free ends bear receptive gustatory hairs. Sensory nerve fibres end at the surface of such cells. Other tall cells are presumably inertly supportive in function.

Eye

The earliest indication of the eyes is a pair of shallow grooves on the sides of the forebrain. The grooves quickly become indented optic cups, each connected to the brain by a slender optic stalk. Most of the cup will become the retina, but its rim represents the epithelial part of the insensitive ciliary body and iris. The thicker inner layer of the cup becomes the neural layer of the retina, and by the sixth month three strata of neurons are recognizable in it: (1) visual cells, each bearing either a photoreceptive rod or a cone at one end, (2) bipolar cells, intermediate in position, and (3) ganglion cells, which sprout axons that grow back through the optic stalk and make connections within the brain. The thin outer layer of the cup remains a simple epithelium whose cells gain pigment and make up the pigment epithelium of the retina.

The lens arises as a thickening of the ectoderm adjacent to the optic cup. It inpockets to form a lens vesicle and then detaches. The cells of its back wall become tall, transparent lens fibres. Mesoderm surrounding the optic cup specializes into two accessory coats. The outer coat, the tough, white sclera, is continuous with the transparent cornea. The inner coat, the vascular choroid, continues as the vascular and muscular ciliary body and the vascularized tissue of the iris. The eyelids are folds of adjacent skin, and from the inside of each upper lid several lacrimal glands bud out.

Ear

The projecting part (auricle) of the external ear develops from hillocks on the first and second branchial arches. The ectodermal groove between those arches deepens and becomes the external auditory canal. The auditory tube and tympanic cavity—the cavity at the inner side of the eardrum—are expansions of the endodermal pouch located between the first and second branchial arches. The area where ectodermal groove and endodermal pouch come in contact is the site of the future eardrum. The chain of three auditory ossicles (small bones) that stretches across the tympanic cavity is a derivative of the first and second arches.

The epithelium of the internal ear is at first a thickening of ectoderm at a level midway of the hindbrain. This plate inpockets and pinches off as a closed sac, the otocyst. Its ventral part elongates and coils to resemble a snail’s shell, thereby forming the cochlear duct, or seat of the organ of hearing. A middle region of the otocyst becomes chambers known as the utricle and saccule, related to the sense of balance. The dorsal part of the otocyst remodels drastically into three semicircular ducts, related to the sense of movement. Fibres of the acoustic nerve grow among specialized receptive cells differentiated in certain regions of these three divisions.

Mesodermal derivatives

Skeletal system

Except for part of the skull, all bones pass through three stages of development: membranous, cartilaginous, and osseous. The earliest ossification centres appear in the eighth week, but some do not arise until childhood years and even into adolescence.

Axial skeleton

The ventromedial walls (the walls toward the front and the midline) of the paired somites break down, and their cells migrate toward the axial notochord and surround it. Differentiation and growth of these segmental masses produce the jointed vertebrae. Ribs also grow out of each primitive vertebral mass, but they become long only in the thoracic region. Here their ventral ends join to form sternal bars, which fuse to form the sternum.

The skull has three components, different in origin. Its basal region consists of bones that pass through the three typical stages of development. By contrast, the sides and roof of the skull develop directly from membranous primordia, or rudiments. The jaws are derivatives of the first pair of cartilaginous branchial arches but develop as membrane bone. Ventral ends of the second to fifth arches contribute the cartilages of the larynx and the hyoid bone (a bone of horseshoe shape at the base of the tongue). Dorsal ends of the first and second arches become the three auditory ossicles (the small bones in the middle ear).

Appendicular skeleton

The limb bones develop in three stages from axial condensations in the local mesoderm. The shoulder and pelvic supports are comparable sets, as are the bones of the arms and legs.

Articulations

Some type of joint exists wherever bones meet. Joints that allow little or no movement consist of connective tissue, cartilage, or bone. Movable joints arise as fluid-filled clefts in mesoderm, which condenses peripherally into a fibrous capsule.

Muscular system

Much of each somite differentiates into myoblasts (primitive muscle cells) that become voluntary muscle fibres. Aggregations of such fibres become muscles of the neck and trunk. Muscles of the head and some of the neck muscles originate from the mesoderm of branchial arches. Muscles of the limbs seemingly arise directly from local mesoderm. In general, muscle primordia may fuse into composites, split into subdivisions, or migrate away from their sites of origin. During these changes they retain their original nerve supply. Regardless of differences in source of origin, all voluntary muscle fibres are of the same striated type (marked by dark and light stripes). Spontaneous movements begin to occur in embryos about 10 weeks old. In general, involuntary muscle differentiates from mesoderm surrounding hollow organs; only the cardiac muscle type is striated.

Vascular system

All hollow organs, including arteries, veins, and lymphatics, are lined with epithelium—the principal functional tissue—and are ensheathed with muscular and fibrous coats.

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Blood vessels

Primitive blood vessels arise in the mesoderm as tiny clefts bordered by flat endothelial cells. Growth and coalescence produce networks, out of which favoured channels persist as definite vessels, while others decline and disappear. A bilaterally symmetrical system of vessels is well represented in embryos four weeks old. This early plan is profoundly altered and made somewhat asymmetrical during the second month by fusions, atrophies, emergence of new vessels, and rerouting of older ones. The alterations reflect adjustments to changing form and pattern within the developing organ systems.

Arteries cranial to the heart (headward of the heart) are mostly products of the paired aortic arches, which course axially within the branchial arches, thus interconnecting the ventral aorta with paired dorsal aortas. The third pair of aortic arches becomes the common carotids; the fourth pair, the aortic arch and brachiocephalic artery; the fifth pair, the pulmonary arteries and ductus arteriosus. The dorsal aortas fuse into the single descending aorta, which bears three sets of paired segmental branches. The dorsal set becomes the subclavian, intercostal, and lumbar arteries. The lateral set becomes arteries to the diaphragm, the adrenal glands, the kidneys, and the sex glands. The ventral set becomes the celiac, mesenteric, and umbilical arteries. Axial arteries to both sets of limb buds emerge from an original plexus, but they undergo drastic alteration and extensive replacement.

The primitive veins are symmetrically bilateral. They consist of vitelline veins from the yolk sac, umbilical veins from the placenta, and precardinal and postcardinal veins from the cranial and caudal regions (the regions toward the head and toward the tail) of the body. Drastic transformations occur in all of these, and new pairs of veins (subcardinals and supracardinals) arise also, caudal to the heart. From the vitellines come chiefly the portal and hepatic veins. The left umbilical becomes the main return from the placenta by making a diagonal channel, the ductus venosus, through the liver to the heart. The precardinal veins change their names to the internal jugulars, but near the heart an interconnection permits both to drain into a common stem, then called the superior vena cava. Caudal to the heart, the postcardinals virtually disappear, and all blood return shifts to the right side as a new compound vessel, the inferior vena cava, becomes dominant. Pulmonary veins open into the left atrium. Veins from the limb buds organize from an early peripheral border vein.

Lymphatic vessels

The lymph vessels develop independently in close association with the veins. Linkages produce the thoracic duct, which is the main drainage return for lymph. Masses of lymphocytes accumulate about lymphatic vessels and organize as lymph nodes. The spleen has somewhat similar tissue, but its channels are supplied with blood.

Heart

Fusion combines two endothelial tubes, and these are surrounded by a mantle of mesoderm that will become the muscular and fibrous coats of the heart. At three weeks the heart is a straight tube that is beginning to beat. Starting at the head end, four regions can be recognized: bulbus, ventricle, atrium, and sinus venosus. Since the heart is anchored at both ends, rapid elongation forces it to bend. In doing this, the sinus venosus–atrium and bulbus-ventricle reverse their original relations. Further development concerns the transformation of a single-chambered heart into one with four chambers.

The atrium becomes subdivided by the growth of two incomplete partitions, or septa, placed close together and each covering the defect in the other. The ventricle also subdivides, but by a single complete partition. A canal, connecting atria and ventricles, becomes two canals. The bulbus is absorbed into the right ventricle, and its continuation (the truncus) subdivides lengthwise, forming the aorta and the pulmonary artery. The right horn of the sinus venosus is absorbed into the right atrium, together with the superior and inferior venae cavae, which originally drained into the sinus. The transverse portion of the sinus persists as the coronary sinus. The pulmonary veins retain their early drainage into the left atrium. Important valves develop and ensure flow within the heart, from atria to ventricles, and outward from the ventricles into the aorta and the pulmonary artery.

Birth initiates breathing, and the abandonment of the placental circulation follows. These changes entail a drastic rerouting of blood through the heart. As a result, the two atrial septa fuse and no longer permit blood to pass from the right atrium to the left atrium. Blood in the pulmonary artery no longer bypasses the lungs; previously it had passed to the aorta directly through a shunt offered by the ductus arteriosus. As a sequel to these changes, the abandoned umbilical arteries, umbilical vein, ductus venosus, and ductus arteriosus all collapse and become fibrous cords.

Urinary system

Vertebrates have made three experiments in kidney production: the pronephros, or earliest type; the mesonephros, or intermediate kidney; and the metanephros, or permanent kidney. All arise from the cellular plates called nephrotomes that connect somites with the mesodermal sheets that bound the body cavity. The vestigial pronephros is represented solely by several pairs of tubules; they join separately formed excretory ducts that grow downward and enter the cloaca, the common outlet for urine, genital products, and intestinal wastes. Next tailward arise some 40 pairs of nephric (kidney) tubules that constitute the mesonephros; these tubules join the same excretory ducts, hereafter called the mesonephric ducts. The two sets of mesonephric tubules serve as functioning kidneys until the 10th week.

Each permanent kidney, or metanephros, develops still farther tailward. A so-called ureteric primordium buds off each mesonephric duct near its hind end. The ureteric stem elongates and expands terminally, thereby forming the renal pelvis and calices; continued bushlike branching produces collecting ducts. The early ureteric bud invades a mass of nephrotome tissue. The branching collecting ducts progressively break this tissue up into tiny lumps, each of which becomes a long secretory tubule, or nephron, and joins a nearby terminal twig of the duct system. Continued proliferation of ducts and nephric tissue produces over a million urine-producing tubules in each kidney.

The blind caudal end of the endodermal hindgut absorbs the stem of each mesonephric duct, whereupon the remainder of the duct and the ureter acquire separate openings into the hindgut. This expanded region of the gut, now a potential receptacle for feces, urine, and reproductive products, is known as a cloaca. It next subdivides into a rectum behind and a urogenital sinus in front. The sinus in turn will specialize into the urinary bladder and the urethra. The prostate gland develops as multiple buds from the urethra, close to the bladder.

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Genital system

The genital organs begin to develop in the second month, but for a time the individual’s sex is not grossly distinguishable. A double set of male and female ducts arise, and not until later does the unneeded set decline. Hence, this period is commonly called the indifferent stage.

Gonads

Sex glands develop in a pair of longitudinal ridges located alongside the mesentery, the anchoring fold of membrane to the gut. The primordial sex cells appear first in the wall of the yolk sac, from which they migrate upward in the gut, pass through its mesentery, and finally invade the genital ridges, where they proliferate. The testes are the earliest type of gonad to organize. They begin by developing testis cords and a testis capsule. The cords radiate from one focal point at the periphery, and thin fibrous partitions segregate groups of the cords within wedge-shaped compartments. These cords do not gain channels or become semen-producing tubules until near the time of puberty. The ovaries organize somewhat tardily by differentiating an outer portion, the cortex, and a central portion, the medulla. The cortex contains the primordial sex cells; these become surrounded by a layer of ordinary cells, thereby forming primary ovarian follicles. Both the testes and the ovaries undergo relative shifts from their early sites to lower positions in the body, but only the testes make a bodily descent, into the scrotum.

Genital ducts

In the male, a few mesonephric tubules on each side do not degenerate but link up with the neighbouring testis tubules. The converted mesonephric tubules and the retained mesonephric ducts become the male sex ducts. Near their terminations they outpouch seminal vesicles and then open into the urethra.

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In the female, a pair of ducts develops from the epithelium clothing the mesonephric ridges. These ducts, known as the paramesonephric (or Müllerian) ducts, mostly parallel the courses of the mesonephric ducts. Their first two-thirds develop into the uterine tube, but at their lower ends they unite into a common tube that becomes the uterus, cervix, and upper third of the vagina.

External genitalia

Both sexes develop a genital tubercle (i.e., a knob) and a pair of urogenital folds flanked by a pair of genital swellings. At three months these rudiments begin to assume male or female characteristics. In the male, the tubercle and the united urogenital folds combine as the penis, thereby continuing the urethra to its end; the genital swellings shift toward the anus, fuse, and become the scrotum. In the female, the tubercle remains small, as the clitoris; it does not contain the urethra. The urogenital folds remain unclosed as the lesser vulvar lips and are flanked by the unshifted and unfused genital swellings, or greater lips.

Coelom

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The lateral mesoderm, beyond the somites and nephrotomes, splits into two layers: the somatic layer and, underlying the somatic layer, the splanchnic layer. The intervening space is the coelom. As the embryo’s body folds off, its coelom becomes a single closed cavity. In it can be recognized, regionally, a provisional pericardial cavity (cavity for the heart), two pleural canals (for the lungs), and a peritoneal cavity (for the abdominal contents). A thick plate of mesoderm, the transverse septum, constitutes a partial partition just ahead of the developing liver. Two pairs of membranes grow out from the septum. One set separates the pericardial cavity from the two pleural cavities; these membranes later expand into the pericardium and enclose the heart. The other pair of membranes separates the pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen. The definitive diaphragm is a composite partition, much of which is furnished by the transverse septum; lesser contributions are from the lateral body walls and the paired membranes that separated the pleural and peritoneal cavities.

Endodermal derivatives

Pharynx

The tongue is a product of four branchial arches, whose ventral ends merge in its midplane. Papillae elevate from the surface, and taste buds arise as specializations within the covering epithelium of some of them. Pharyngeal pouches are early lateral expansions of the local endoderm, alternating with the branchial arches. The first pair elongate as the auditory tubes and tympanic cavities. The second pair mark the site of the tonsils. The third pair give rise to the halves of the thymus, and the third and fourth pairs produce the two sets of parathyroid glands. The thyroid gland buds off the pharyngeal floor in the midplane and at the level of the second branchial arches.

Digestive tube

As the embryo folds off, the endoderm is rolled in as the foregut and hindgut. Continued growth progressively closes both the midbody and the midgut. The esophagus remains as a simple, straight tube. The stomach grows faster on its dorsal side, thereby forming the bulging greater curvature; the stomach also rotates 90° so that its original dorsal and ventral borders come to lie left and right. The intestine elongates faster than the trunk, so that its loops find temporary room by pushing into the umbilical cord. Later the loops return, completing a rotation that gives the characteristic final placement of the small and large intestines.

When the gut folds into a tube, it is suspended by a sheetlike dorsal mesentery, or membranous fold. In the region of the stomach, it forms an expansive pouch, the omental bursa. Secondary fusions of the bursa and of some of the rest of the mesentery with the body wall produce lines of attachment from stomach to rectum inclusive, different from the original midplane course. Such fusions also firmly anchor some parts of the tract. A ventral mesentery, beneath the gut, exists only in the region of the stomach and liver.

Major glands

The liver arises as a ventral outgrowth of the foregut that invades the early transverse septum. Although rapid growth causes it to bulge prominently away from this septum, it remains attached to the septum and hence to the definitive diaphragm. The differentiating glandular tissue takes the form of plates bathed by blood channels. The stem of the original liver bud becomes the common bile duct, whereas a secondary outgrowth produces the cystic duct and the gallbladder.

The pancreas takes its origin from a larger dorsal bud and a smaller ventral bud, both off the foregut. The two merge and their ducts communicate, but in humans it is the lesser, ventral duct that becomes the stem outlet. Secretory acini are berrylike endings of the branching ducts. Pancreatic islets arise as special sprouts from the ducts; these differentiate into endocrine tissue that secretes insulin.

Respiratory system

Nasal cavity

The first part of the respiratory system is ectodermal in origin. The olfactory sacs become continuous secondarily with a passage captured from the primitive mouth cavity. This addition is produced by a horizontal partition, the palate. It arises from a pair of shelflike folds that grow out from the halves of the primitive upper jaw and then unite. The final nasal passage extends from the nostrils to the back of the pharynx.

Larynx, trachea, and lungs

Fetal Position Lop

A hollow lung bud grows off the floor of the endodermal pharynx, just caudal (tailward) to the pharyngeal pouches and in the midline. It has the form of a tube with an expanded end. The entrance to this tube is the glottis, and the region about it becomes the larynx. The tube proper represents the trachea (or windpipe). Its terminal expansion divides into two branches, and these tubes elongate as the primary bronchi. Continued growth and budding produce two side branches from the right bronchus and one from the left. These branches and the blind ends of the two parent bronchi indicate the future plan of the lungs, with three right lobes and two left lobes. Through the sixth month, continued branchings produce bronchioles of different orders. In the final months the smaller ducts and early respiratory alveoli (air sacs) appear, the lungs losing their previous glandular appearance and also becoming highly vascular. Until breathing distends the lungs, these organs remain relatively small.