R: A self-learn tutorial. 1 Introduction. R is a software language for carrying out complicated (and simple) statistical analyses. It includes routines for data summary and exploration, graphical presentation and data modelling. The aim of this document is to provide you with a basic °uency in the language. Statistics with R from Duke University. In this Specialization, you will learn to analyze and visualize data in R and create reproducible data analysis reports, demonstrate a conceptual understanding of the unified nature of statistical.

R is a programming language and free software environment for statistical computing and graphics supported by the R Foundation for Statistical Computing.^[6] The R language is widely used among statisticians and data miners for developing statistical software^[7] and data analysis.^[8] Polls, data mining surveys, and studies of scholarly literature databases show substantial increases in popularity in recent years.^[9]. as of June 2019, R ranks 22nd in the TIOBE index, a measure of popularity of programming languages.^[10]

A GNU package,^[11]source code for the R software environment is written primarily in C, Fortran and R itself,^[12] and is freely available under the GNU General Public License. Pre-compiled binary versions are provided for various operating systems. Although R has a command line interface, there are several graphical user interfaces, such as RStudio, an integrated development environment.^[13][14]

• 13Examples

History[edit]

R is an implementation of the S programming language combined with lexical scoping semantics, inspired by Scheme.^[15]S was created by John Chambers in 1976, while at Bell Labs. There are some important differences, but much of the code written for S runs unaltered.^[16]

R was created by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman^[17] at the University of Auckland, New Zealand, and is currently developed by the R Development Core Team (of which Chambers is a member).^[18] R is named partly after the first names of the first two R authors and partly as a play on the name of S.^[19] The project was conceived in 1992, with an initial version released in 1995 and a stable beta version in 2000.^[20][21][22]

Statistical features[edit]

R and its libraries implement a wide variety of statistical and graphical techniques, including linear and nonlinear modelling, classical statistical tests, time-series analysis, classification, clustering, and others. R is easily extensible through functions and extensions, and the R community is noted for its active contributions in terms of packages. Many of R's standard functions are written in R itself, which makes it easy for users to follow the algorithmic choices made. For computationally intensive tasks, C, C++, and Fortran code can be linked and called at run time. Advanced users can write C, C++,^[23]Java,^[24].NET^[25] or Python code to manipulate R objects directly.^[26] R is highly extensible through the use of user-submitted packages for specific functions or specific areas of study. Due to its S heritage, R has stronger object-oriented programming facilities than most statistical computing languages. Extending R is also eased by its lexical scoping rules.^[27]

Another strength of R is static graphics, which can produce publication-quality graphs, including mathematical symbols. Dynamic and interactive graphics are available through additional packages.^[28]

R has Rd, its own LaTeX-like documentation format, which is used to supply comprehensive documentation, both online in a number of formats and in hard copy.^[29]

Programming features[edit]

R is an interpreted language; users typically access it through a command-line interpreter. If a user types 2+2 at the R command prompt and presses enter, the computer replies with 4, as shown below:

This calculation is interpreted as the sum of two single-element vectors, resulting in a single-element vector. The prefix [1] indicates that the list of elements following it on the same line starts with the first element of the vector (a feature that is useful when the output extends over multiple lines).

Like other similar languages such as APL and MATLAB, R supports matrix arithmetic. R's data structures include vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames (similar to tables in a relational database) and lists.^[30] Arrays are stored in column-major order.^[31] R's extensible object system includes objects for (among others): regression models, time-series and geo-spatial coordinates. The scalar data type was never a data structure of R.^[32] Instead, a scalar is represented as a vector with length one.^[33]

Many features of R derive from Scheme. R uses S-expressions to represent both data and code. Functions are first-class and can be manipulated in the same way as data objects, facilitating meta-programming, and allow multiple dispatch. Variables in R are lexically scoped and dynamically typed. Function arguments are passed by value, and are lazy -- that is to say, they are only evaluated when they are used, not when the function is called.

R supports procedural programming with functions and, for some functions, object-oriented programming with generic functions. A generic function acts differently depending on the classes of arguments passed to it. In other words, the generic function dispatches the function (method) specific to that class of object. For example, R has a genericprint function that can print almost every class of object in R with a simple print(objectname) syntax.^[34]

Although used mainly by statisticians and other practitioners requiring an environment for statistical computation and software development, R can also operate as a general matrix calculation toolbox – with performance benchmarks comparable to GNU Octave or MATLAB.^[35]

Packages[edit]

The capabilities of R are extended through user-created packages, which allow specialised statistical techniques, graphical devices, import/export capabilities, reporting tools (knitr, Sweave), etc. These packages are developed primarily in R, and sometimes in Java, C, C++, and Fortran.^{[citation needed]} The R packaging system is also used by researchers to create compendia to organise research data, code and report files in a systematic way for sharing and public archiving.^[36]

A core set of packages is included with the installation of R, with more than 15,000 additional packages (as of September 2018) available at the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN),^[37]Bioconductor, Omegahat,^[38]GitHub, and other repositories.^[39]

The 'Task Views' page (subject list) on the CRAN website^[40] lists a wide range of tasks (in fields such as Finance, Genetics, High Performance Computing, Machine Learning, Medical Imaging, Social Sciences and Spatial Statistics) to which R has been applied and for which packages are available. R has also been identified by the FDA as suitable for interpreting data from clinical research.^[41]

Other R package resources include Crantastic,^[42] a community site for rating and reviewing all CRAN packages, and R-Forge,^[43] a central platform for the collaborative development of R packages, R-related software, and projects. R-Forge also hosts many unpublished beta packages, and development versions of CRAN packages.

The Bioconductor project provides R packages for the analysis of genomic data. This includes object-oriented files at CRAN.^[45] Some highlights are listed below for several major releases.

Interfaces[edit]

The most specialized integrated development environment (IDE) for R is RStudio.^[50] A similar development interface is R Tools for Visual Studio. Some generic IDEs like Eclipse,^[51] also offer features to work with R.

Graphical user interfaces with more of a point-and-click approach include Rattle GUI, R Commander, and RKWard.

Some of the more common editors with varying levels of support for R include Emacs (Emacs Speaks Statistics), Vim (Nvim-R plugin^[52]), Neovim (Nvim-R plugin^[52]), Kate,^[53]LyX,^[54]Notepad++,^[55]Visual Studio Code, WinEdt,^[56] and Tinn-R.^[57]

R functionality is accessible from several scripting languages such as Python,^[58]Perl,^[59]Ruby,^[60]F#,^[61] and Julia.^[62] Interfaces to other, high-level programming languages, like Java^[63] and .NET C#^[64][65] are available as well.

R B Songs To Download

Implementations[edit]

The main R implementation is written in R, C, and Fortran, and there are several other implementations aimed at improving speed or increasing extensibility. A closely related implementation is pqR (pretty quick R) by Radford M. Neal with improved memory management and support for automatic multithreading. Renjin and FastR are Java implementations of R for use in a Java Virtual Machine. CXXR, rho, and Riposte^[66] are implementations of R in C++. Renjin, Riposte, and pqR attempt to improve performance by using multiple processor cores and some form of deferred evaluation.^[67] Most of these alternative implementations are experimental and incomplete, with relatively few users, compared to the main implementation maintained by the R Development Core Team.

TIBCO built a runtime engine called TERR, which is part of Spotfire.^[68]

Microsoft R Open is a fully compatible R distribution with modifications for multi-threaded computations.^[69]

R communities[edit]

R has vibrant and active local communities worldwide for users to network, share ideas, and learn.^[70][71]

There are many R-user meetups^[72], including R-Ladies^[73] groups that promote gender diversity.

useR! conferences[edit]

The official annual gathering of R users is called 'useR!'.^[74]The first such event was useR! 2004 in May 2004, Vienna, Austria.^[75] After skipping 2005, the useR! conference has been held annually, usually alternating between locations in Europe and North America.^[76]Subsequent conferences have included:^[74]

• useR! 2006, Vienna, Austria
• useR! 2007, Ames, Iowa, USA
• useR! 2008, Dortmund, Germany
• useR! 2009, Rennes, France
• useR! 2010, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
• useR! 2011, Coventry, United Kingdom
• useR! 2012, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
• useR! 2013, Albacete, Spain
• useR! 2014, Los Angeles, California, USA
• useR! 2015, Aalborg, Denmark
• useR! 2016, Stanford, California, USA
• useR! 2017, Brussels, Belgium
• useR! 2018, Brisbane, Australia

Future conferences planned are as follows:^[74]

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• useR! 2019, Toulouse, France
• useR! 2020, St. Louis, Missouri, USA

The R Journal[edit]

The R Journal is the open access, refereed journal of the R project for statistical computing. It features short to medium length articles on the use, and development of R, including packages, programming tips, CRAN news, and foundation news.

Comparison with SAS, SPSS, and Stata[edit]

R is comparable to popular commercial statistical packages, such as SAS, SPSS, and Stata, but R is available to users at no charge under a free software license.^[77]

In January 2009, the New York Times ran an article charting the growth of R, the reasons for its popularity among data scientists and the threat it poses to commercial statistical packages such as SAS.^[78] In June 2017 data scientist Robert Muenchen published a more in-depth comparison between R and other software packages, 'The Popularity of Data Science Software'^[79].

Commercial support for R[edit]

Although R is an open-source project supported by the community developing it, some companies strive to provide commercial support and/or extensions for their customers. This section gives some examples of such companies.

In 2007, Richard Schultz, Martin Schultz, Steve Weston and Kirk Mettler founded Revolution Analytics to provide commercial support for Revolution R, their distribution of R, which also includes components developed by the company. Major additional components include: ParallelR, the R Productivity Environment IDE, RevoScaleR (for big data analysis), RevoDeployR, web services framework, and the ability for reading and writing data in the SAS file format.^[80] Revolution Analytics also offer a distribution of R designed to comply with established IQ/OQ/PQ criteria which enables clients in the pharmaceutical sector to validate their installation of REvolution R.^[81] In 2015, Microsoft Corporation completed the acquisition of Revolution Analytics.^[82] and has since integrated the R programming language into SQL Server 2016, SQL Server 2017, Power BI, Azure SQL Database, Azure Cortana Intelligence, Microsoft R Server and Visual Studio 2017.^[83]

In October 2011, Oracle announced the Big Data Appliance, which integrates R, Apache Hadoop, Oracle Linux, and a NoSQL database with Exadata hardware.^[84] As of 2012, Oracle R Enterprise^[85] became one of two components of the 'Oracle Advanced Analytics Option'^[86] (alongside Oracle Data Mining).^{[citation needed]}

IBM offers support for in-Hadoop execution of R,^[87] and provides a programming model for massively parallel in-database analytics in R.^[88]

Other major commercial software systems supporting connections to or integration with R include: JMP,^[89]Mathematica,^[90]MATLAB,^[91]Microsoft Power BI,^[92]Pentaho,^[93]Spotfire,^[94]SPSS,^[95]Statistica,^[96]Platform Symphony,^[97]SAS,^[98]Tableau Software,^[99]Esri ArcGIS,^[100]Dundas^[101] and Statgraphics.^[102]

Tibco offers a runtime-version R as a part of Spotfire.^[103]

Mango offers a validation package for R, ValidR,^[104][105] to make it compliant with drug approval agencies, like FDA. These agencies allow for the use of any statistical software in submissions, if only the software is validated, either by the vendor or sponsor itself.^[106]

Examples[edit]

Basic syntax[edit]

The following examples illustrate the basic syntax of the language and use of the command-line interface. Covered california 1095-a download.

In R, the generally preferred^[107]assignment operator is an arrow made from two characters <-, although = can usually be used instead.^[108]

Structure of a function[edit]

One of R’s strengths is the ease of creating new functions. Objects in the function body remain local to the function, and any data type may be returned.^[109]Here is an example user-created function:

Mandelbrot set[edit]

Short R code calculating Mandelbrot set through the first 20 iterations of equation z = z² + c plotted for different complex constants c. This example demonstrates:

• use of community-developed external libraries (called packages), in this case caTools package
• handling of complex numbers
• multidimensional arrays of numbers used as basic data type, see variables C, Z and X.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Hornik, Kurt (26 November 2015). 'R FAQ'. The Comprehensive R Archive Network. 2.1 What is R?. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
2. ^ ^abIhaka, Ross (1998). R : Past and Future History(PDF) (Technical report). Statistics Department, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
3. ^'The Comprehensive R Archive Network'. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
4. ^'R license'. r-project. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
5. ^'Introduction'. The Julia Manual. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
6. ^ R language and environment
   • Hornik, Kurt (4 October 2017). 'R FAQ'. The Comprehensive R Archive Network. 2.1 What is R?. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
   R Foundation
   • Hornik, Kurt (4 October 2017). 'R FAQ'. The Comprehensive R Archive Network. 2.13 What is the R Foundation?. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
   The R Core Team asks authors who use R in their data analysis to cite the software using:
   • R Core Team (2016). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL http://www.R-project.org/.
7. ^ widely used
   • Fox, John & Andersen, Robert (January 2005). 'Using the R Statistical Computing Environment to Teach Social Statistics Courses'(PDF). Department of Sociology, McMaster University. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
   • Vance, Ashlee (6 January 2009). 'Data Analysts Captivated by R's Power'. New York Times. Retrieved 6 August 2018. R is also the name of a popular programming language used by a growing number of data analysts inside corporations and academia. It is becoming their lingua franca..
8. ^Vance, Ashlee (6 January 2009). 'Data Analysts Captivated by R's Power'. New York Times. Retrieved 6 August 2018. R is also the name of a popular programming language used by a growing number of data analysts inside corporations and academia. It is becoming their lingua franca..
9. ^ R's popularity
   • David Smith (2012); R Tops Data Mining Software Poll, Java Developers Journal, May 31, 2012.
   • Karl Rexer, Heather Allen, & Paul Gearan (2011); 2011 Data Miner Survey Summary, presented at Predictive Analytics World, Oct. 2011.
   • Robert A. Muenchen (2012). 'The Popularity of Data Analysis Software'.
   • Tippmann, Sylvia (29 December 2014). 'Programming tools: Adventures with R'. Nature. 517: 109–110. doi:10.1038/517109a.
10. ^'TIOBE Index - The Software Quality Company'. TIOBE. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
11. ^ GNU project
    • 'GNU R'. Free Software Foundation (FSF) Free Software Directory. 23 April 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
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12. ^'Wrathematics' (27 August 2011). 'How Much of R Is Written in R'. librestats. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
13. ^'7 of the Best Free Graphical User Interfaces for R'. linuxlinks.com. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
14. ^'List of R Editors'. r-dir. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
15. ^Morandat, Frances; Hill, Brandon; Osvald, Leo; Vitek, Jan (2012). 'Evaluating the design of the R language: objects and functions for data analysis'(PDF). ECOOP'12 Proceedings of the 26th European conference on Object-Oriented Programming. Retrieved 17 May 2016.
16. ^'R: What is R?'. R-Project. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
17. ^Gentleman, Robert (9 December 2006). 'Individual Expertise profile of Robert Gentleman'. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
18. ^Thieme, Nick (August 2018). 'R generation'. Significance. 15 (4): 14–19. doi:10.1111/j.1740-9713.2018.01169.x.
19. ^Kurt Hornik. The R FAQ: Why R?. ISBN3-900051-08-9. Retrieved 29 January 2008.
20. ^'R : Past and Future History -- A Free Software Project'. cran.r-project.org. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
21. ^'Over 16 years of R Project history'. Revolutions. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
22. ^Ihaka, Ross. 'The R Project: A Brief History and Thoughts About the Future'(PDF). stat.auckland.ac.nz.
23. ^Eddelbuettel, Dirk; Francois, Romain (2011). 'Rcpp: Seamless R and C++ Integration'. Journal of Statistical Software. 40 (8). doi:10.18637/jss.v040.i08.
24. ^'nution-j2r: Java library to invoke R native functions'. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
25. ^ .NET Framework
    • 'Making GUIs using C# and R with the help of R.NET'. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
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    • Haynold, Oliver M. (April 2011). An Rserve Client Implementation for CLI/.NET(PDF). R/Finance 2011. Chicago, IL, USA. Archived from the original(PDF) on 29 November 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
26. ^R manuals. 'Writing R Extensions'. r-project.org. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
27. ^Jackman, Simon (Spring 2003). 'R For the Political Methodologist'(PDF). The Political Methodologist. Political Methodology Section, American Political Science Association. 11 (1): 20–22. Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 July 2006. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
28. ^'CRAN Task View: Graphic Displays & Dynamic Graphics & Graphic Devices & Visualization'. The Comprehensive R Archive Network. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
29. ^'Rd format'. hep.by. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
30. ^Dalgaard, Peter (2002). Introductory Statistics with R. New York, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 10–18, 34. ISBN0387954759.
31. ^An Introduction to R, Section 5.1: Arrays. Retrieved in 2010-03 from https://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/R-intro.html#Arrays.
32. ^Ihaka, Ross; Gentlman, Robert (September 1996). 'R: A Language for Data Analysis and Graphics'(PDF). Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics. American Statistical Association. 5 (3): 299–314. doi:10.2307/1390807. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
33. ^'Data structures · Advanced R.'adv-r.had.co.nz. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
34. ^R Core Team. 'Print Values'. R Documentation. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
35. ^'Speed comparison of various number crunching packages (version 2)'. SciView. 2003. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 3 November 2007.
36. ^Marwick, Ben; Boettiger, Carl; Mullen, Lincoln (26 August 2017). 'Packaging data analytical work reproducibly using R (and friends)'. PeerJ Preprints. doi:10.7287/peerj.preprints.3192v1. ISSN2167-9843.
37. ^'The Comprehensive R Archive Network'. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
38. ^'Omegahat.net'. Omegahat.net. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
39. ^ packages available from repositories
    • Robert A. Muenchen (2012). 'The Popularity of Data Analysis Software'.
    • Tippmann, Sylvia (29 December 2014). 'Programming tools: Adventures with R'. Nature. 517: 109–110. doi:10.1038/517109a.
    • 'Search all R packages and function manuals | Rdocumentation'. Rdocumentation. 16 June 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
40. ^'CRAN Task Views'. cran.r-project.org. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
41. ^'FDA: R OK for drug trials'. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
42. ^'It's crantastic!'. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
43. ^'R-Forge: Welcome'. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
44. ^Huber, W; Carey, VJ; Gentleman, R; Anders, S; Carlson, M; Carvalho, BS; Bravo, HC; Davis, S; Gatto, L; Girke, T; Gottardo, R; Hahne, F; Hansen, KD; Irizarry, RA; Lawrence, M; Love, MI; MacDonald, J; Obenchain, V; Oleś, AK; Pagès, H; Reyes, A; Shannon, P; Smyth, GK; Tenenbaum, D; Waldron, L; Morgan, M (2015). 'Orchestrating high-throughput genomic analysis with Bioconductor'. Nature Methods. Nature Publishing Group. 12 (2): 115–121. doi:10.1038/nmeth.3252. PMC4509590. PMID25633503.
45. ^Changes in versions 3.0.0 onward:
    • 'R News'. cran.r-project.org. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
    Changes for earlier versions (by major release number):
    • 'NEWS.2'. cran.r-project.org. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
    • 'NEWS.1'. cran.r-project.org. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
    • 'NEWS.0'. cran.r-project.org. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
46. ^'Index of /src/base/R-0'.
47. ^'ANNOUNCE: CRAN'.
48. ^https://cran.r-project.org/src/base/NEWS.0
49. ^Peter Dalgaard. 'R-1.0.0 is released'. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
50. ^'Poll: R GUIs you use frequently (2011)'. kdnuggets.com. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
51. ^Unknown. 'StatET for R'.
52. ^ ^ab'Nvim-R - Plugin to work with R : vim online'. www.vim.org. Retrieved 6 March 2019.
53. ^'Syntax Highlighting'. Kate Development Team. Archived from the original on 7 July 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
54. ^Paul E. Johnson & Gregor Gorjanc. 'LyX with R through Sweave'. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
55. ^'NppToR: R in Notepad++'. sourceforge.net. 8 May 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
56. ^Uwe Ligges. 'RWinEdt: R Interface to 'WinEdt''. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
57. ^'Tinn-R'. Retrieved 5 March 2019.
58. ^Gautier, Laurent (21 October 2012). 'A simple and efficient access to R from Python'. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
59. ^Florent Angly. 'Statistics::R - Perl interface with the R statistical program - metacpan.org'.
60. ^alexgutteridge. 'GitHub - alexgutteridge/rsruby: Ruby - R bridge'. GitHub.
61. ^BlueMountain Capital. 'F# R Type Provider'.
62. ^'Embedded R within Julia'.
63. ^'Rserve TCP/IP server'.
64. ^'RserveCLI2 - a .NET/CLR client for Rserve'.
65. ^'R.NET'.
66. ^Talbot, Justin; DeVito, Zachary; Hanrahan, Pat (1 January 2012). 'Riposte: A Trace-driven Compiler and Parallel VM for Vector Code in R'. Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Parallel Architectures and Compilation Techniques. ACM: 43–52. doi:10.1145/2370816.2370825.
67. ^Neal, Radford (25 July 2013). 'Deferred evaluation in Renjin, Riposte, and pqR'. Radford Neal's blog. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
68. ^Jackson, Joab (May 16, 2013). TIBCO offers free R to the enterprise. PC World. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
69. ^'Microsoft R Open: The Enhanced R Distribution'. Retrieved 30 June 2018.
70. ^'Local R User Group Directory'. Revolutions Blog. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
71. ^'A list of R conferences and meetings'. Jumping Rivers. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
72. ^'R Project for Statistical Computing'. Meetup. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
73. ^'R Ladies'. R Ladies. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
74. ^ ^abc'useR!'. Retrieved from https://www.r-project.org/conferences.html
75. ^'useR! 2004 - The R User Conference'. 27 May 2004. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
76. ^R Project (9 August 2013). 'R-related Conferences'. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
77. ^Burns, Patrick (27 February 2007). 'Comparison of R to SAS, Stata and SPSS'(PDF). Retrieved 18 September 2013.
78. ^ R as competition for commercial statistical packages
    • Vance, Ashlee (7 January 2009). 'Data Analysts Are Mesmerized by the Power of Program R: [Business/Financial Desk]'. The New York Times.
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79. ^Muenchen, Robert (19 June 2017). 'The Popularity of Data Science Software'. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
80. ^Morgan, Timothy Prickett (2011-02-07). 'Red Hat for stats' goes toe-to-toe with SAS'. The Register, 7 February 2011. Retrieved from https://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/02/07/revolution_r_sas_challenge/.
81. ^'Analyzing clinical trial data for FDA submissions with R'. Revolution Analytics. 14 January 2009. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
82. ^Sirosh, Joseph. 'Microsoft Closes Acquisition of Revolution Analytics'. blogs.technet.com. Microsoft. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
83. ^'Introducing R Tools for Visual Studio'. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
84. ^ Oracle Corporation's Big Data Appliance
    • Doug Henschen (2012); Oracle Makes Big Data Appliance Move With Cloudera, InformationWeek, January 10, 2012.
    • Jaikumar Vijayan (2012); Oracle's Big Data Appliance brings focus to bundled approach, ComputerWorld, January 11, 2012.
    • Timothy Prickett Morgan (2011); Oracle rolls its own NoSQL and Hadoop Oracle rolls its own NoSQL and Hadoop, The Register, October 3, 2011.
85. ^Chris Kanaracus (2012); Oracle Stakes Claim in R With Advanced Analytics Launch, PC World, February 8, 2012.
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87. ^'What's New in IBM InfoSphere BigInsights v2.1.2'. IBM. Archived from the original on 6 September 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
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89. ^JMP (2013). 'Analytical Application Development with JMP'. SAS Institute Inc. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
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93. ^'Data Science Pack'. Pentaho Corporation. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
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102. ^'Statgraphics R Interface'. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
103. ^Tibco. 'Unleash the agility of R for the Enterprise'. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
104. ^'ValidR on Mango website'. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
105. ^Andy Nicholls at Mango Solutions. 'ValidR Enterprise: Developing an R Validation Framework'(PDF). Retrieved 24 September 2018.
106. ^FDA. 'Statistical Software Clarifying Statement'(PDF). Retrieved 24 September 2018.
107. ^ most used assignment operator in R is <-
     • R Development Core Team. 'Writing R Extensions'. Retrieved 11 September 2018. [..] we recommend the consistent use of the preferred assignment operator ‘<-’ (rather than ‘=’) for assignment.
     • 'Google's R Style Guide'. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
     • Wickham, Hadley. 'Style Guide'. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
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108. ^R Development Core Team. 'Assignments with the = Operator'. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
109. ^Kabacoff, Robert (2012). 'Quick-R: User-Defined Functions'. statmethods.net. Retrieved 28 September 2018.

External links[edit]

• Official website of the R project

R (namedar/or/ɑːr/^[1]) is the 18th letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet.

• 1History
• 3Use in writing systems
• 4Related characters

History[edit]

Antiquity[edit]

The original Semitic letter may have been inspired by an Egyptian hieroglyph for tp, 'head'.^{[citation needed]} It was used for /r/ by Semites because in their language, the word for 'head' was rêš (also the name of the letter). It developed into Greek 'Ρ' ῥῶ (rhô) and Latin R.

The descending diagonal stroke develops as a graphic variant in some Western Greek alphabets (writing rho as ), but it was not adopted in most Old Italic alphabets; most Old Italic alphabets show variants of their rho between a 'P' and a 'D' shape, but without the Western Greek descending stroke. Indeed, the oldest known forms of the Latin alphabet itself of the 7th to 6th centuries BC, in the Duenos and the Forum inscription, still write r using the 'P' shape of the letter.The Lapis Satricanus inscription shows the form of the Latin alphabet around 500 BC. Here, the rounded, closing Π shape of the p and the Ρ shape of the r have become difficult to distinguish. The descending stroke of the Latin letter R has fully developed by the 3rd century BC, as seen in the Tomb of the Scipios sarcophagus inscriptions of that era. From around 50 AD, the letter P would be written with its loop fully closed, assuming the shape formerly taken by R.

Cursive[edit]

The minuscule (lowercase) form (r) developed through several variations on the capital form. Along with Latin minuscule writing in general, it developed ultimately from Roman cursive via the uncial script of Late Antiquity into the Carolingian minuscule of the 9th century.

In handwriting, it was common not to close the bottom of the loop but continue into the leg, saving an extra pen stroke. The loop-leg stroke shortened into the simple arc used in the Carolingian minuscule and until today.

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A calligraphic minuscule r, known as r rotunda (ꝛ), was used in the sequence or, bending the shape of the r to accommodate the bulge of the o (as in oꝛ as opposed to or). Later, the same variant was also used where r followed other lower case letters with a rounded loop towards the right (such as b, h, p) and to write the geminate rr (as ꝛꝛ). Use of r rotunda was mostly tied to blackletter typefaces, and the glyph fell out of use along with blackletter fonts in English language contexts mostly by the 18th century.

Insular script used a minuscule which retained two downward strokes, but which did not close the loop ('Insular r', ꞃ); this variant survives in the Gaelic type popular in Ireland until the mid-20th century (but now mostly limited to decorative purposes).

Name[edit]

The name of the letter in Latin was er (/ɛr/), following the pattern of other letters representing continuants, such as F, L, M, N and S. This name is preserved in French and many other languages. In Middle English, the name of the letter changed from /ɛr/ to /ar/, following a pattern exhibited in many other words such as farm (compare French ferme), and star (compare German Stern).

In Hiberno-English the letter is called /ɒr/ or /ɔːr/.^[2]

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The letter R is sometimes referred to as the littera canīna (literally 'canine letter', often rendered in english as the dog's letter). This Latin term referred to the Latin R was trilled to sound like a growling dog, a spoken style referred to as vōx canīna ('dog voice'). A good example of a trilled R is in the Spanish word for dog, perro.^[3]

In William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, such a reference is made by Juliet's nurse in Act 2, scene 4, when she calls the letter R 'the dog's name'. The reference is also found in Ben Jonson's English Grammar.^[4]

Use in writing systems[edit]

English[edit]

The letter ⟨r⟩ is the eighth most common letter in English and the fourth-most common consonant (after ⟨t⟩, ⟨n⟩, and ⟨s⟩).^[5]

The letter ⟨r⟩ is used to form the ending '-re', which is used in certain words such as centre in some varieties of English spelling, such as British English. Canadian English also uses the '-re' ending, unlike American English, where the ending is usually replaced by '-er' (center). This does not affect pronunciation.

Other languages[edit]

⟨r⟩ represents a rhotic consonant in many languages, as shown in the table below.

Other languages may use the letter ⟨r⟩ in their alphabets (or Latin transliterations schemes) to represent rhotic consonants different from the alveolar trill. In Haitian Creole, it represents a sound so weak that it is often written interchangeably with ⟨w⟩, e.g. 'Kweyol' for 'Kreyol'.

Brazilian Portuguese has a great number of allophones of /ʁ/ such as [χ], [h], [ɦ], [x], [ɣ], [ɹ] and [r], the latter three ones can be used only in certain contexts ([ɣ] and [r] as ⟨rr⟩; [ɹ] in the syllable coda, as an allophone of /ɾ/ according to the European Portuguese norm and /ʁ/ according to the Brazilian Portuguese norm). Usually at least two of them are present in a single dialect, such as Rio de Janeiro's [ʁ], [χ], [ɦ] and, for a few speakers, [ɣ].

Other systems[edit]

The International Phonetic Alphabet uses several variations of the letter to represent the different rhotic consonants; ⟨r⟩ represents the alveolar trill.

Related characters[edit]

Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet[edit]

• R with diacritics: Ŕ ŕɌ ɍŘ řŖ ŗṘ ṙȐ ȑȒ ȓṚ ṛṜ ṝṞ ṟꞦ ꞧⱤ ɽR̃ r̃ᵲ^[6]ᵳ^[6]ᶉ^[7]
• International Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to R: ɹɺɾɻɽʀʁʶ˞ʴ
• Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet: ɼ ɿ
• Uralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to R:^[8]
  • U+1D19ᴙLATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL REVERSED R
  • U+1D1AᴚLATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL TURNED R
  • U+1D3FᴿMODIFIER LETTER CAPITAL R
  • U+1D63ᵣLATIN SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER R
• Teuthonista phonetic transcription-specific symbols related to R:^[9]
  • U+AB45ꭅLATIN SMALL LETTER STIRRUP R
  • U+AB46ꭆLATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL R WITH RIGHT LEG
  • U+AB47ꭇLATIN SMALL LETTER R WITHOUT HANDLE
  • U+AB48ꭈLATIN SMALL LETTER DOUBLE R
  • U+AB49ꭉLATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH CROSSED-TAIL
  • U+AB4AꭊLATIN SMALL LETTER DOUBLE R WITH CROSSED-TAIL
  • U+AB4BꭋLATIN SMALL LETTER SCRIPT R
  • U+AB4CꭌLATIN SMALL LETTER SCRIPT R WITH RING
• ⱹ : Turned r with tail is used in the Swedish Dialect Alphabet^[10]
• Other variations of R used for phonetic transcription: ʳʵ

Calligraphic variants in the Latin alphabet[edit]

• Ꝛ ꝛ : R rotunda
• Ꞃ ꞃ : 'Insular' R (Gaelic type)

Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets[edit]

• 𐤓 : Semitic letter Resh, from which the following letters derive
  • Ρ ρ : Greek letter Rho, from which the following letters derive
    • 𐌓 : Old Italic letter R, the ancestor of modern Latin R
      • ᚱ : Runic letter Raido
    • Р р : Cyrillic letter Er
    • 𐍂 : Gothic letter Reda

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Abbreviations, signs and symbols[edit]

• ℟: symbol for 'response' in liturgy
• ℞ : Medical prescription Rx
• ₽ : Ruble symbol
• ® : Registered trademark symbol

Physics[edit]

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Encoding[edit]

¹Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.

Other representations[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^'R', Oxford English Dictionary || /ˈɔr/ 2nd edition (1989); 'ar', op. cit; a pronunciation /ɔːr/ is common in Ireland.[1]
2. ^'Analysis of selected contemporary Irish dialects'(PDF). Digilib.k.utb.cz. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
3. ^'A Word A Day: Dog's letter'. Wordsmith.org. Retrieved 2012-01-17.
4. ^Shakespeare, William; Horace Howard Furness; Frederick Williams (1913). Romeo and Juliet. Lippincott. p. 189.
5. ^'Frequency Table'. Math.cornell.edu. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
6. ^ ^abConstable, Peter (2003-09-30). 'L2/03-174R2: Proposal to Encode Phonetic Symbols with Middle Tilde in the UCS'(PDF). Unicode.org.
7. ^Constable, Peter (2004-04-19). 'L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS'(PDF). Unicode.org.
8. ^Everson, Michael; et al. (2002-03-20). 'L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS'(PDF). Unicode.org.
9. ^Everson, Michael; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011-06-02). 'L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode 'Teuthonista' phonetic characters in the UCS'(PDF). Unicode.org.
10. ^Lemonen, Therese; Ruppel, Klaas; Kolehmainen, Erkki I.; Sandström, Caroline (2006-01-26). 'L2/06-036: Proposal to encode characters for Ordbok över Finlands svenska folkmål in the UCS'(PDF). Unicode.org.

External links[edit]

• Media related to R at Wikimedia Commons
• The dictionary definition of R at Wiktionary
• The dictionary definition of r at Wiktionary